Unification of Nepal by Prithvi Narayan Shah

Introduction

The unification of Nepal stands as one of the most pivotal events in the history of the Himalayan region. This historic process was initiated and led by King Prithvi Narayan Shah of the Gorkha Kingdom, who ruled from 1743 to 1775 AD. At that time, the territory that now comprises modern Nepal was fragmented into more than 50 small and often warring principalities. These included the Baise (22) and Chaubise (24) states in the west, and the wealthy and culturally rich Malla kingdoms—Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur—in the central valley.

Prithvi Narayan Shah was a visionary leader who recognized the vulnerability of these divided states, especially in the face of growing British colonial power in India. He believed that a unified Nepal would be strong enough to resist external threats and preserve its independence. His campaign began with the strategic conquest of Nuwakot in 1744, which allowed him to control vital trade routes between Tibet and India. He then turned his focus to the Kathmandu Valley, capturing Kathmandu in 1768 during the Indra Jatra festival, and swiftly annexing Patan and Bhaktapur by 1769.

Prithvi Narayan Shah famously referred to Nepal as a "yam between two boulders," symbolizing its precarious position between the powerful empires of China and British India. After his death in 1775, the unification campaign was carried forward by his successors, particularly Regent Bahadur Shah. By the early 19th century, the Nepali kingdom stretched from the Tista River in the east to Kangra in the west, laying the foundation for modern Nepal and ensuring its sovereignty in an era dominated by colonial expansion.

Historical Context

Before the unification of Nepal, the region was politically fragmented and composed of over 50 small, often rival, principalities. These states varied in size, influence, and cultural practices, yet together they formed the mosaic of what would eventually become modern Nepal.

Fragmented Kingdoms

The Kathmandu Valley, the cultural and political heartland of the region, was ruled by the three powerful Malla kingdoms—Kantipur (present-day Kathmandu), Lalitpur (Patan), and Bhadgaon (Bhaktapur). These city-states were not only administrative centers but also hubs of art, architecture, and religion. Although they shared a common language and culture, frequent internal rivalries and competition for dominance often led to political instability, making them vulnerable to external threats.

To the west, the hilly and mountainous terrain was divided into two major confederacies: the Baise Rajya (a group of 22 principalities) and the Chaubise Rajya (24 principalities). These states included Palpa, Gulmi, Jajarkot, Pyuthan, and Lamjung, among others. Although they had a shared cultural heritage and often intermarried within ruling families, they functioned independently, each with its own king and military forces.

In the southern Terai and southeastern hills, smaller yet strategically important kingdoms like Makwanpur, Bijayapur (in present-day Morang), and Chaudandi emerged as significant powers due to their fertile lands and trade connections with northern India. These states often played pivotal roles in regional politics and maintained their own military and diplomatic systems.

Rise of Gorkha

Amidst this fragmented political landscape, a relatively small and obscure kingdom began to rise—Gorkha. Founded by Dravya Shah in 1559, the Gorkha kingdom was geographically modest but possessed a disciplined military, ambitious rulers, and a strategic location in the hills between the western confederacies and the Kathmandu Valley.

By the mid-18th century, under the leadership of King Prithvi Narayan Shah, Gorkha began to assert itself as a dominant power. Prithvi Narayan Shah envisioned a unified nation and embarked on a bold and systematic campaign of conquest and diplomacy. He capitalized on the disunity among the neighboring states and the declining power of the Mallas. His strategic brilliance, combined with military reforms and alliances, allowed Gorkha to defeat much larger and wealthier kingdoms.

Prithvi Narayan Shah famously stated that "Nepal is a garden of four castes and thirty-six ethnic groups," emphasizing unity in diversity. His unification efforts laid the foundation for a sovereign and centralized Nepali state that could resist both internal strife and external imperial ambitions, especially from the expanding British East India Company in India.

Before unification, the region was divided into more than 50 small kingdoms:

The Kathmandu Valley had three powerful Malla kingdoms: Kantipur (Kathmandu), Lalitpur (Patan), and Bhadgaon (Bhaktapur).
The western hills included the Baise Rajya (22 states) and Chaubise Rajya (24 states).
To the south and southeast were Makwanpur, Bijayapur (Morang), Chaudandi, and others.

Early Life of Prithvi Narayan Shah

Prithvi Narayan Shah, the architect of Nepal's unification, was born on January 11, 1723 (27th Poush, 1779 B.S.) in the small but strategically located kingdom of Gorkha. He was the first son of King Nara Bhupal Shah and Queen Kaushalyavati Devi. From a young age, Prithvi Narayan displayed qualities of intelligence, courage, and ambition—traits that would later define his legacy as a nation-builder.

Raised in the rugged hills of Gorkha, he was exposed to the martial traditions and warrior ethos of his kingdom. His early education included training in swordsmanship, archery, and military tactics, along with lessons in governance, diplomacy, and religious philosophy under learned teachers and advisors.

On April 3, 1743, at the age of 20, Prithvi Narayan Shah ascended the throne after the death of his father. Though young, he quickly demonstrated a strategic mind and a visionary leadership style. Unlike many contemporary rulers who were preoccupied with local rivalries, the young king had a broader vision: the unification of the scattered principalities of the region into a strong, sovereign nation.

During his early years as king, Prithvi Narayan Shah visited the Kathmandu Valley, which was then divided among the three Malla kingdoms—Kantipur, Lalitpur, and Bhadgaon. These visits left a lasting impression on him. He was struck by the valley's economic prosperity, fertile land, artistic richness, and most importantly, its geopolitical location at the crossroads of trade between India and Tibet.

Realizing that controlling the valley would be key to controlling the entire region, he returned to Gorkha determined to expand his kingdom and lay the groundwork for a unified Nepal. But he also understood that this would not be a simple military campaign; it required careful planning, internal consolidation, diplomatic maneuvering, and above all, a strong, disciplined army.

His vision and early initiatives marked the beginning of a transformative era in Nepal's history—one that would culminate in the creation of a unified Himalayan nation resilient against foreign domination.

Born: January 11, 1723 in Gorkha

Father: King Nara Bhupal Shah

Ascended the throne: April 3, 1743

Prithvi Narayan Shah was young and ambitious. His early visits to the Kathmandu Valley made him realize the importance of the valley's wealth and strategic location.

Chronological Timeline of the Unification Campaign

1. Attempt to Capture Nuwakot (1736 & 1742 – Failed)

Nuwakot was a very important place during the unification of Nepal. It was located between Gorkha and the Kathmandu Valley, and controlled the main trade route to Tibet. Whoever controlled Nuwakot could stop goods and supplies going in and out of the valley. So, both Gorkha and the Malla kings wanted it.

1736: First Attack by Nara Bhupal Shah – Failed

In 1736, King Nara Bhupal Shah, the father of Prithvi Narayan Shah, led his army to attack Nuwakot. He wanted to capture it from the king of Kantipur (Kathmandu), who controlled it at the time.

But the attack failed. The Gorkhali army was not strong enough, and they were not well prepared. The Malla forces of Kantipur were powerful and defended Nuwakot successfully. This defeat showed that Gorkha needed better planning and a stronger army.

1742: Second Attempt by Prithvi Narayan Shah – Also Failed

In 1742, just a year after becoming king, Prithvi Narayan Shah also tried to capture Nuwakot. He knew its importance and wanted to prove himself as a capable ruler. But this attack also failed.

Why did it fail again?

The Gorkha army was still not fully trained or organized.
The enemy had strong fortifications and better resources.
The plan was rushed, and Prithvi Narayan Shah didn't yet have enough experience or support.

Even though he failed, this attempt taught him a valuable lesson. He understood that to win, he needed more than bravery—he needed a disciplined army, strong weapons, good intelligence, and clever strategies.

This failure was a turning point. It made Prithvi Narayan Shah realize that he had to change his approach if he wanted to succeed in unifying the small kingdoms into one powerful Nepal.

Nuwakot, a gateway between Gorkha and Kathmandu, was strategically vital.

1736: Nara Bhupal Shah's attack failed.

1742: Prithvi Narayan Shah attempted but failed again shortly after becoming king.

2. Conquest of Nuwakot (Successfully captured on September 26, 1744)

After two failed attempts to capture Nuwakot—in 1736 by his father Nara Bhupal Shah, and in 1742 by himself—Prithvi Narayan Shah realized he needed better preparation. He spent the next two years improving his army and carefully planning the attack.

Careful Planning and Preparation

Prithvi Narayan Shah:

Trained his soldiers and improved weapons.
Built better forts and supply systems.
Collected information about Nuwakot's defenses.
Formed alliances with nearby small kingdoms to avoid interference.

This time, he was fully prepared.

The Attack

On September 26, 1744, Gorkha launched a surprise and well-coordinated attack on Nuwakot.

Kalu Pande, a trusted and brave general, led the main assault.

The Gorkhali army attacked from multiple directions, catching the enemy off guard.

The battle was intense, but the Malla forces of Kantipur could not withstand the strong and determined Gorkhali troops. By the end of the day, Gorkha had captured Nuwakot.

Importance of the Victory

It was Prithvi Narayan Shah's first major success.
It boosted the confidence of the Gorkha army and people.
Gorkha now controlled the vital trade route between India and Tibet through Nuwakot.
This meant more income from trade taxes, which helped fund future military campaigns.
It also gave Gorkha a strong military base near the Kathmandu Valley for future attacks.

This victory showed that Prithvi Narayan Shah's dream of unifying Nepal was possible. It marked the beginning of a successful unification campaign.

After careful planning and military buildup, Gorkha attacked again.

Commander Kalu Pande led the charge.

Victory gave Gorkha control over the trans-Himalayan trade route between Tibet and India.

3. Conquest of Belkot (1744)

After the successful capture of Nuwakot on September 26, 1744, Prithvi Narayan Shah did not stop. He knew that to secure his control over the region and protect Nuwakot from northern threats, he had to take Belkot, a nearby strategic fort located north of Nuwakot.

Strategic Importance of Belkot

Belkot was built on higher ground, making it a natural fortress.
It provided a strong defense line to protect the northern side of Nuwakot.
Capturing Belkot would strengthen Gorkha's hold over the region and send a message to other hill kingdoms.

The Attack and Victory

Just weeks after the Nuwakot victory, the Gorkhali army moved quickly toward Belkot.

The Gorkhalis were confident and energized after their recent win.
Jayant Rana, the commander of Belkot, was a former Gorkhali who had joined the Malla side—making him a traitor in Gorkha's eyes.
The battle was fierce and bloody, but Gorkha's superior planning and momentum led to another victory.

Belkot fell to Gorkha, further expanding Prithvi Narayan Shah's territory.

Execution of Jayant Rana

After the victory, Jayant Rana was captured. Because he had once served Gorkha and later betrayed them by supporting the Malla kings, Prithvi Narayan Shah ordered his execution.

This was a bold and symbolic act.

It sent a clear warning to other local rulers and commanders: betrayal would not be tolerated.
It also showed that Prithvi Narayan Shah was serious about unification and loyalty.

Impact of the Conquest

Strengthened Gorkha's control over the Nuwakot region.
Boosted the morale of the Gorkhali army.
Spread fear and respect among other small kingdoms.
Gave Gorkha a strategic advantage for future campaigns toward the Kathmandu Valley.

The capture of Belkot was a key step in the early phase of Nepal's unification and demonstrated Prithvi Narayan Shah's determination, military strength, and strict discipline.

Soon after Nuwakot, Belkot (a fort north of Nuwakot) was captured.

The local commander, Jayant Rana, was executed—this sent a strong message to other enemies.

4. Battle of Kirtipur – First Attempt (1757)

After capturing Nuwakot and Belkot, Prithvi Narayan Shah turned his attention toward the Kathmandu Valley, the political and economic center of the region. His next target was Kirtipur, a heavily fortified and important city located on a hill to the southwest of Kathmandu.

Importance of Kirtipur

Kirtipur was a strong and strategic city with high walls and a brave population.
It had a commanding view of the valley, making it a key military point.
Controlling Kirtipur would give Gorkha a clear advantage for launching future attacks on Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur.

The First Attack – 1757 (1814 B.S.)

In 1757, Prithvi Narayan Shah launched his first attack on Kirtipur.

He was confident after his earlier victories.
The Gorkhali army was led by the brave and experienced General Kalu Pande.
The plan was to quickly overwhelm Kirtipur and enter the valley.

But things went terribly wrong.

Reasons for Failure

The people of Kirtipur were well-prepared and fought with courage.
The city's high walls made it hard for the Gorkhali troops to climb and enter.
The Malla kings of Kathmandu had sent reinforcements to support Kirtipur.
The Gorkhali army was trapped and suffered heavy losses.

During the fierce battle, General Kalu Pande was killed, which was a huge blow to the Gorkha army. Prithvi Narayan Shah himself narrowly escaped with his life.

Aftermath

The defeat was disheartening for Gorkha.
Losing Kalu Pande, a key military leader, was a major setback.
The people of Kirtipur became known for their bravery and resistance.

But instead of giving up, Prithvi Narayan Shah learned from his mistakes. He understood that winning the valley would require more planning, better timing, and patience.

This failed attempt at Kirtipur showed that the unification of Nepal would not be easy—but Prithvi Narayan Shah remained determined.

Prithvi Narayan Shah tried to attack Kirtipur, a fortified city in the valley.

The attempt failed disastrously; Gorkhali general Kalu Pande was killed, and the king narrowly escaped.

5. Battle of Kirtipur – Second Attempt (1764 – Failed)

After the heavy losses suffered during the first assault on Kirtipur in 1757, Prithvi Narayan Shah did not give up on his goal of conquering this key fortress. He knew that without controlling Kirtipur, gaining full control of the Kathmandu Valley would be nearly impossible.

In 1764, nearly seven years after the first battle, Prithvi Narayan Shah launched his second attempt to capture Kirtipur. This time, he was more prepared and brought a larger and better-equipped army. Yet, despite the improvements, the campaign once again ended in failure.

Why the Second Attack Failed

The defenders of Kirtipur were well-entrenched and highly motivated. They had reinforced the city's fortifications and prepared for another siege.
The city's natural defensive position on a steep hill gave the defenders a significant strategic advantage.
Kirtipur's residents, including skilled archers and warriors, fiercely resisted the Gorkha forces.
Prithvi Narayan Shah's troops faced difficult terrain and strong counterattacks, making it impossible to breach the city walls.
Morale among the attackers began to waver as the siege dragged on without success.

Impact of the Defeat

The second failed attempt at Kirtipur was a major disappointment for the Gorkhali forces. It showed that the defenders were not only resilient but also well-organized and prepared for prolonged conflict.

However, rather than abandoning his campaign, Prithvi Narayan Shah used this setback to refine his strategies. He understood that capturing Kirtipur would require even more careful planning, stronger alliances, and perhaps siege tactics or negotiations beyond brute force.

This failure reinforced the idea that the unification of Nepal would be a long, hard struggle requiring patience, persistence, and adaptability.

A second attempt also failed due to strong resistance and strategic advantage of defenders.

6. Conquest of Kirtipur – Third Attempt (Captured on March 17, 1767)

After two costly and unsuccessful attempts to take Kirtipur in 1757 and 1764, Prithvi Narayan Shah realized that brute force alone would not secure this heavily fortified city. For the third and final attempt, he wisely changed his strategy from direct attacks to a more patient and calculated approach.

New Strategy: Siege and Blockade

Instead of rushing to storm the walls, Prithvi Narayan Shah focused on cutting off Kirtipur's supply lines. He aimed to isolate the city by:

Blocking food supplies and trade routes leading into the Kathmandu Valley.
Surrounding the city to prevent any reinforcements or aid from reaching the defenders.
Slowly starving the city into submission through a prolonged siege and economic blockade.

This tactic took time but proved effective. With fewer supplies, the defenders' strength began to wane, and their morale dropped.

Internal Betrayal and Collapse

In addition to the blockade, internal conflicts and betrayals weakened Kirtipur's defense. Some insiders, likely frustrated by the hardship and scarcity caused by the siege, helped the Gorkhali forces gain entry.

Finally, on March 17, 1767 (24th Chaitra, 1823 B.S.), after months of encirclement and pressure, Kirtipur fell to Prithvi Narayan Shah's forces.

Brutal Aftermath: A Warning to Others

The victory, however, was marked by brutal punishment. In an act meant to intimidate and deter other cities from resisting Gorkha's unification efforts, many citizens of Kirtipur were mutilated—their ears and noses were cut off.

This harsh treatment sent a strong message to the other kingdoms in the valley: resistance would be met with severe consequences.

Significance of the Capture

The fall of Kirtipur gave Gorkha a crucial foothold inside the Kathmandu Valley.
It paved the way for the eventual conquest of Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur.
The victory demonstrated Prithvi Narayan Shah's growth as a military leader—willing to adapt tactics and use psychological warfare alongside direct combat.
It was a turning point in Nepal's unification campaign, marking the beginning of the valley's integration under one rule.

This conquest of Kirtipur was not just a military success; it was a symbolic triumph that showed the determination and ruthlessness behind Prithvi Narayan Shah's vision of a unified Nepal.

Prithvi Narayan Shah changed tactics—cutting off food and trade routes to the valley.

After a prolonged blockade and internal betrayal, Kirtipur was finally captured.

Many citizens were mutilated (ears and noses cut)—a brutal warning to others.

7. Blockade of Kathmandu Valley (1767–1768)

Following the capture of Kirtipur in 1767, Prithvi Narayan Shah intensified his campaign to bring the entire Kathmandu Valley under Gorkha control. Understanding that a direct military assault on the well-fortified cities of Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur would be costly and difficult, he opted for a strategic approach: an economic blockade.

Enforcement of the Blockade

Prithvi Narayan Shah's forces effectively sealed off the Kathmandu Valley, cutting off all major trade routes that connected the valley to the outside world. This blockade targeted the two most vital economic lifelines:

The trade route to India through the southern Terai plains.
The trans-Himalayan trade route to Tibet via the northern passes.

By controlling key passes and forts around the valley, the Gorkhali army prevented merchants and supplies—especially essential goods like salt, grains, and textiles—from entering the valley. This blockade put enormous pressure on the Malla kingdoms, whose wealth and power depended heavily on trade.

Impact on the Malla Kingdoms

The blockade caused severe shortages of food and essential goods inside the Kathmandu Valley. Prices soared, and the population suffered from hunger and hardship. The Malla kings—already weakened and divided—found themselves trapped in an increasingly desperate situation.

Realizing they could not withstand the blockade indefinitely, the Malla rulers sought external help.

Appeal to the British East India Company

In a bid to break the Gorkha siege, the Malla kings turned to the rising power of the British East India Company in India. They appealed for military assistance to repel Prithvi Narayan Shah's forces and restore their control over the valley.

Responding to the request, the British dispatched a military expedition under Captain George Kinloch in 1767. Kinloch's forces were sent to open trade routes and relieve the blockade.

Captain Kinloch's Expedition

Captain Kinloch led a force of about 3,000 soldiers and marched towards the Kathmandu Valley with the intention of breaking the Gorkha siege. However:

The Gorkhali troops, familiar with the difficult terrain, launched effective guerrilla attacks.
Kinloch's forces faced logistical challenges and hostile terrain.
After initial progress, the expedition was forced to retreat due to strong resistance, supply issues, and lack of reinforcements.

The failure of the British relief effort was a major setback for the Mallas and a significant victory for Prithvi Narayan Shah.

Consequences of the Blockade

The economic blockade weakened the Malla kingdoms both financially and militarily.
It increased internal dissent and lowered morale among the valley's defenders.
It showcased Prithvi Narayan Shah's strategic brilliance in using economic warfare as a powerful tool alongside military action.
The British retreat left the valley isolated, accelerating its eventual fall to the Gorkha forces.

The blockade was a crucial phase in the unification of Nepal, demonstrating that Prithvi Narayan Shah's vision extended beyond battlefield victories to include economic and diplomatic strategy.

P.N. Shah enforced an economic blockade, stopping trade from India and Tibet.

The Malla kings appealed to the British East India Company, who sent troops under Captain Kinloch.

8. Battle with British (Battle of Sindhuli – November 1767)

In the midst of Prithvi Narayan Shah's campaign to unify Nepal, the British East India Company grew increasingly concerned about the growing power of the Gorkha kingdom. Responding to the Malla kings' plea for help against the Gorkha blockade of the Kathmandu Valley, the British sent an expeditionary force led by Captain George Kinloch in 1767.

British Advance from the South

Kinloch's mission was to break the Gorkha blockade and restore access to the Kathmandu Valley by entering from the southern Terai plains. The British force, composed of around 3,000 well-armed soldiers, marched through difficult terrain, aiming to open the trade routes and support the struggling Malla kingdoms.

However, the geography of Nepal—marked by dense forests, steep hills, and narrow mountain passes—favored the defenders.

Gorkhali Strategy and Guerrilla Warfare

Aware of the British movements, Prithvi Narayan Shah's generals prepared a strong defense. The Gorkhali troops, led by local commanders familiar with the terrain, set up an ambush near Sindhuli Gadhi, a strategic hill fortress south of Kathmandu.

Instead of confronting the British in open battle, the Gorkhalis used guerrilla tactics—hit-and-run attacks, ambushes, and attacks on supply lines—making full use of the difficult terrain. They harassed the British forces at every turn, cutting off their communication and resupply routes.

The Battle of Sindhuli

In November 1767, the two forces clashed at Sindhuli Gadhi. The Gorkhali warriors:

Used their knowledge of the hills and forests to strike unexpectedly.
Targeted the British supply lines, forcing them into a vulnerable position.
Launched fierce attacks from hidden positions, forcing the British into confusion and retreat.

Despite the British having better weaponry and training, the combination of terrain advantage and guerrilla tactics overwhelmed their forces.

Decisive Gorkha Victory

The British army was decisively defeated and forced to retreat. The loss was embarrassing for the British East India Company and a significant triumph for the Gorkha kingdom.

Significance of the Victory

The Battle of Sindhuli was one of the first major defeats the British suffered in the Himalayan region.
It boosted the morale of the Gorkha army and supporters of unification.
The victory discouraged further British military interference in Nepal for several decades.
It solidified Prithvi Narayan Shah's position as a strong and capable leader able to defend his kingdom against powerful foreign forces.
The battle demonstrated the effectiveness of guerrilla warfare and the advantage of local knowledge in mountainous terrain.

This victory at Sindhuli was a crucial moment in Nepal's unification history, proving that even a small mountain kingdom could stand against a global empire.

British forces under Kinloch tried to enter Kathmandu from the south.

Gorkhali troops defeated the British at Sindhuli Gadhi, using guerrilla tactics.

This victory was a major morale booster and discouraged future British interference for a while.

9. Conquest of Kathmandu (Captured on September 26, 1768 – During Indra Jatra Festival)

After years of siege, battles, and strategic moves, Prithvi Narayan Shah finally succeeded in capturing Kathmandu, the capital of the powerful Malla kingdom of Kantipur, on September 26, 1768—a day that coincided with the important Indra Jatra festival, one of the valley's major religious and cultural celebrations.

Strategic Timing and Internal Betrayal

Prithvi Narayan Shah's success was not only the result of military might but also of clever timing and internal political strife. The Indra Jatra festival, with its large public gatherings and religious ceremonies, created a moment when the city's defenses were relaxed.

More importantly, there was betrayal within the city's leadership. Some key nobles and officials, including a prominent figure named Danuvanta, sided with the Gorkhali forces. Their betrayal weakened the Malla king's control from within, making it easier for Prithvi Narayan Shah's army to enter and seize the city.

Fall of Kathmandu

Faced with the collapse of his defenses and growing dissent among his own people, King Jaya Prakash Malla of Kantipur fled the city, seeking refuge in the neighboring kingdom of Patan. This marked the end of Kantipur as an independent kingdom.

Prithvi Narayan Shah's forces took control of Kathmandu with relatively little resistance due to the internal divisions and surprise.

Significance of the Capture

The fall of Kathmandu was a major turning point in the unification of Nepal.
It gave Gorkha control over the largest and wealthiest city in the valley, rich in culture, trade, and political influence.
Controlling Kathmandu meant controlling the heart of the valley and paved the way for the eventual capture of other Malla kingdoms, including Patan and Bhaktapur.
The victory boosted Prithvi Narayan Shah's reputation as a decisive and strategic leader.
It also marked the beginning of the transformation of Kathmandu from a Malla stronghold to the capital of a unified Nepal.

Aftermath

Following his escape to Patan, Jaya Prakash Malla continued to resist Gorkha rule for a short time but was eventually defeated. The unification process accelerated as Prithvi Narayan Shah consolidated his power over the valley and extended his influence further.

The capture of Kathmandu during the Indra Jatra festival remains a memorable episode in Nepalese history, symbolizing both the end of an era and the birth of a new, unified nation.

With internal betrayal from key nobles like Danuvanta, Kathmandu fell.

The king of Kantipur, Jaya Prakash Malla, fled to Patan.

10. Conquest of Patan (Captured on October 6, 1768)

Following the decisive capture of Kathmandu, Prithvi Narayan Shah swiftly turned his attention to Lalitpur, also known as Patan, one of the other major kingdoms in the Kathmandu Valley.

Quick Fall of Patan

Just days after Kathmandu's fall, on October 6, 1768, Patan succumbed to the Gorkhali forces. Unlike Kathmandu, where the battle was intense and marked by internal betrayals, the king of Patan, Tej Narasimha Malla, chose to surrender with minimal resistance.

Several factors contributed to Patan's quick fall:

The swift collapse of Kathmandu had demoralized Patan's leadership and population.
The strategic position of Gorkha forces around the valley made further resistance appear futile.
Some nobles and influential figures in Patan saw surrender as a way to preserve their lives and status under the new rule.

Significance of Patan's Capture

The fall of Patan further solidified Prithvi Narayan Shah's control over the Kathmandu Valley.
It removed a major rival power and secured the eastern part of the valley.
This victory helped prevent the possibility of Patan allying with foreign powers or other Malla kingdoms to resist unification.
It marked a near-complete political consolidation of the valley under the Gorkha kingdom.

Aftermath

With both Kathmandu and Patan under his control, Prithvi Narayan Shah focused on the final key target—Bhadgaon (Bhaktapur). The unification of these three kingdoms marked the foundation of modern Nepal and established the Kathmandu Valley as the political and cultural center of the new nation.

Lalitpur (Patan) fell soon after Kathmandu.

The king of Patan, Tej Narasimha Malla, surrendered with minimal resistance.

11. Conquest of Bhaktapur (Captured on November 12, 1769)

The last major obstacle in Prithvi Narayan Shah's mission to unify the Kathmandu Valley was Bhaktapur (Bhadgaon), the final of the three powerful Malla kingdoms to resist Gorkha's expansion.

The Final Battle

By November 12, 1769, after intense campaigning, the Gorkhali forces marched on Bhaktapur. The combined forces of the defeated Malla kings of Kathmandu and Patan had attempted to unite and defend their remaining stronghold. However, their efforts were insufficient against the well-organized and battle-hardened Gorkhali army.

Despite desperate attempts at resistance, Bhaktapur's defenders were overwhelmed by:

The strategic planning and discipline of Prithvi Narayan Shah's troops.
Superior military tactics and experience gained from years of unification campaigns.
Internal divisions and low morale among the defenders following the fall of the neighboring kingdoms.

Significance of Bhaktapur's Fall

With Bhaktapur's capture, the entire Kathmandu Valley came under the control of Prithvi Narayan Shah and the Gorkha kingdom.
This victory marked the completion of a key phase in the unification of Nepal.
It established the Kathmandu Valley as the political, cultural, and economic heart of the new, unified Nepal.
The conquest also symbolized the end of the centuries-old Malla dynasty's dominance in the valley.

Aftermath

Following the conquest, Prithvi Narayan Shah began efforts to integrate the valley's diverse peoples, fortify the region, and build a centralized administration. The unification of the valley provided a strong foundation for expanding the kingdom further across the Himalayan region.

The fall of Bhaktapur was not just a military triumph but a historic milestone in Nepal's journey towards becoming a unified nation under the Shah dynasty.

The final Malla kingdom to fall.

The combined forces of the defeated kings were no match for the Gorkhali army.

With this, the entire Kathmandu Valley came under Shah's rule.

Later Campaigns During Prithvi Narayan Shah's Reign

12. Conquest of Makwanpur (1762–1763)

Before focusing fully on the Kathmandu Valley, Prithvi Narayan Shah recognized the importance of controlling the southern regions that connected Nepal to the Indian plains. One such key area was Makwanpur, a strategic kingdom that controlled important trade routes linking Nepal to the southern Terai and beyond.

Strategic Importance of Makwanpur

Makwanpur governed crucial southern trade routes that connected the Kathmandu Valley to the rich markets of India.
Control over Makwanpur meant access to the fertile Terai plains, vital for food supplies and trade.
The region was under the rule of the Sen Dynasty, a powerful local kingdom with strong defenses.

Military Campaign

Between 1762 and 1763, the Gorkhali forces launched a campaign against Makwanpur. Prithvi Narayan Shah's army fought fiercely against the Sen rulers, overcoming challenging terrain and well-fortified positions.

Despite tough resistance, the Gorkha troops used superior strategy, determination, and better organization to defeat the Sen forces.

Victory and Its Impact

The conquest of Makwanpur was a major success for Gorkha, as it annexed the region into its growing kingdom.
It provided Prithvi Narayan Shah with direct and secure access to the Terai region, allowing for easier movement of troops and goods.
Control of Makwanpur strengthened the Gorkha kingdom's southern border and increased its economic resources through control of trade.
This victory helped lay the foundation for further expansion towards the Kathmandu Valley and other parts of Nepal.

The conquest of Makwanpur was an essential step in Prithvi Narayan Shah's broader plan to unify Nepal by controlling both the strategic trade routes and the central hill regions.

Makwanpur controlled important southern trade routes.

Gorkha fought the Sen Dynasty and annexed the region.

Victory ensured direct access to the Terai region.

13. Conquest of Chaudandi and Bijayapur (1769–1773)

As Prithvi Narayan Shah solidified his control over the Kathmandu Valley and central Nepal, his attention turned toward the eastern hill regions, including the kingdoms of Chaudandi and Bijayapur. These areas roughly correspond to today's Udayapur and Sunsari/Morang districts in eastern Nepal.

Strategic Importance of Chaudandi and Bijayapur

These kingdoms controlled important trade routes connecting eastern Nepal with Tibet and the Indian plains.
Their locations made them valuable for expanding Gorkha's influence further east and securing borders against rival hill states.
They were relatively independent and had local rulers who resisted external domination.

Military Campaigns and Leadership

Between 1769 and 1773, Gorkhali forces, led by skilled commanders such as Ram Krishna Kunwar, undertook military campaigns to bring Chaudandi and Bijayapur under Shah rule. The Gorkha army used:

Careful planning and tactical maneuvers.
Knowledge of difficult mountainous terrain.
Persistent military pressure combined with political negotiations in some cases.

These campaigns were often challenging due to the rugged landscape and the strong local resistance.

Victory and Consolidation

Eventually, Chaudandi and Bijayapur were annexed into the expanding Gorkha kingdom.
This expansion helped unify the eastern part of Nepal under Shah authority.
Control of these regions secured the trade routes and contributed to the economic strength of the kingdom.
It also laid the groundwork for further unification of eastern Nepal's diverse hill states.

The conquest of Chaudandi and Bijayapur reflected Prithvi Narayan Shah's vision of a unified Nepal that stretched from the western hills to the eastern frontiers, connecting the diverse regions into a single kingdom.

Located in eastern Nepal (now Udayapur and Sunsari/Morang).

Gorkhali forces under commanders like Ram Krishna Kunwar brought these regions under control.

14. Conquest of Tanahun and Lamjung (1771–1774)

As Prithvi Narayan Shah's kingdom grew stronger in central and eastern Nepal, he aimed to expand his influence further westward into the important hill states known as the Chaubise Rajya—a confederation of 24 small kingdoms. Among these, Tanahun and Lamjung stood out for their strategic locations and political significance.

Importance of Tanahun and Lamjung

Both kingdoms were crucial for controlling the western hills and extending Gorkha's western frontier.
Their positions along key mountain passes made them gateways for further expansion into western Nepal.
Controlling these kingdoms would secure trade routes and prevent rival states from threatening Gorkha's growing power.

Military Campaigns and Strategy

Between 1771 and 1774, Gorkhali forces launched campaigns to conquer Tanahun and Lamjung. These efforts involved:

Careful military planning to navigate the challenging terrain of the western hills.
Diplomatic efforts to isolate these kingdoms from potential allies.
Direct assaults and sieges led by experienced Gorkha commanders.

The campaigns faced strong resistance, as both Tanahun and Lamjung were well-defended and had longstanding independent traditions.

Outcome and Significance

Eventually, both Tanahun and Lamjung were brought under Gorkha control.
This success greatly expanded Prithvi Narayan Shah's western influence and solidified his hold over the Chaubise Rajya region.
It also helped to unify much of the central and western hill areas under one rule, advancing the vision of a unified Nepal.
The conquest enhanced security along western trade routes and military corridors.

The incorporation of Tanahun and Lamjung marked an important phase in the westward expansion of the Gorkha kingdom, bringing a broader diversity of people and territories into the emerging nation.

These kingdoms were part of the Chaubise Rajya.

Strategically significant for expanding westward influence.

15. Conquest of Dolakha (1760s)

During the early stages of the unification campaign, Dolakha—a kingdom located northeast of Kathmandu—held significant strategic importance. It controlled vital trade routes that connected the Kathmandu Valley to Tibet, making it a key target for Prithvi Narayan Shah's expanding Gorkha kingdom.

Strategic Importance of Dolakha

Dolakha was a gateway for trans-Himalayan trade, especially the flow of salt, wool, and other goods between Tibet and Nepal.
Controlling Dolakha meant securing an important economic and military passage on the northeastern frontier of the kingdom.

Military Campaigns

Throughout the 1760s, the Gorkhali army conducted a series of raids and military expeditions into Dolakha.

These raids were aimed at weakening the local defenses and disrupting trade routes controlled by rival factions.
Gorkhali forces used their superior organization and mountain warfare tactics to gradually subdue the region.
The campaign involved multiple attacks over several years, demonstrating persistence and strategic patience.

Outcome and Impact

After sustained military pressure, Dolakha was eventually brought under Gorkha control.
This conquest secured the northeastern trade routes to Tibet, enhancing the kingdom's access to valuable goods and income.
It also strengthened the eastern borders of the growing Gorkha state, preventing rival powers from threatening the Kathmandu Valley from the northeast.

The conquest of Dolakha was a critical step in establishing the economic and territorial foundations necessary for Prithvi Narayan Shah's broader unification of Nepal.

Important for controlling the northeast trade route to Tibet.

The Gorkhali army subdued Dolakha after multiple raids.

Death and Legacy of Prithvi Narayan Shah

Death

Prithvi Narayan Shah, the visionary king who laid the foundation of modern Nepal, passed away on January 11, 1775, at the age of 52. His death occurred in Nuwakot, a strategic town that had played a pivotal role in his unification campaign.

At the time of his passing, Prithvi Narayan Shah had just completed the most significant phase of his ambitious mission—uniting the fragmented kingdoms of the Kathmandu Valley under Gorkha rule and securing key surrounding territories.

Legacy

Prithvi Narayan Shah's legacy is profound and far-reaching. He is remembered not only as a fearless warrior but also as a wise statesman and visionary leader who transformed a small hill kingdom into the nucleus of a unified Nepal.

His military campaigns and strategic diplomacy united dozens of small kingdoms and principalities into a single nation for the first time in history.
He established Kathmandu Valley as the political, cultural, and economic heart of Nepal.
His policies promoted self-reliance and discouraged foreign interference, famously advising to keep Nepal's sovereignty free from colonial powers.
Prithvi Narayan Shah laid the foundation for a centralized administration and governance system that his successors would build upon.

Continuation of the Campaign

After his death, his successors—most notably King Bahadur Shah, who served as regent for the young king—carried forward his vision. They continued the expansionist campaigns, moving:

Further westward to conquer remaining independent hill states.
Southward into the fertile Terai plains, securing valuable agricultural lands and trade routes.

These efforts gradually extended Nepal's boundaries to approximate the country's modern-day borders.

Enduring Influence

Prithvi Narayan Shah remains a revered figure in Nepalese history and culture. His unification of Nepal is celebrated as a turning point that shaped the nation's identity and destiny. Monuments, schools, and streets bear his name, and his teachings continue to inspire pride and unity among Nepalese people.

Death: January 11, 1775 (aged 52)

Died in Nuwakot, just after completing the major phase of unification.

His successors, especially King Bahadur Shah (regent), continued the campaign westward and into the Terai.

Vision and Reforms

"Nepal is a yam between two boulders": A metaphor for Nepal's geopolitical location between India and China.

He focused on:

Strengthening borders.
Maintaining national unity.
Avoiding foreign (especially British) interference.

Significance of the Unification

Prevented colonization of Nepal by British India.
Established Nepal's current territorial foundation.
Created the framework for a centralized monarchy and administrative unity.
Fostered national identity based on Hindu values, although diverse cultures existed within.

Conclusion

The unification of Nepal under Prithvi Narayan Shah was a turning point in South Asian history. Through decades of warfare, diplomacy, and strategic foresight, he brought together dozens of warring principalities into a strong, independent kingdom. His legacy remains central to Nepali identity, and he is rightly honored as the founder of modern Nepal.

Timeline of Key Events

Year/Date	Event Description	Key Figures/Places
1723, January 11	Birth of Prithvi Narayan Shah, the first son of King Nara Bhupal Shah and Queen Kaushalyavati Devi, in Gorkha.	Prithvi Narayan Shah, Gorkha
1743, April 3	Prithvi Narayan Shah ascended the throne of Gorkha at the age of 20 after the death of his father, King Nara Bhupal Shah.	Prithvi Narayan Shah, King Nara Bhupal Shah, Gorkha
1736	First failed attempt by King Nara Bhupal Shah to capture Nuwakot from Kantipur (Kathmandu).	King Nara Bhupal Shah, Nuwakot, Kantipur (Kathmandu)
1742	Second failed attempt by Prithvi Narayan Shah to capture Nuwakot, shortly after becoming king.	Prithvi Narayan Shah, Nuwakot
1744, Sept 26	Successful capture of Nuwakot by Gorkha forces, led by General Kalu Pande. This was Prithvi Narayan Shah's first major success and gave Gorkha control over the vital trade route between India and Tibet.	Nuwakot, Kalu Pande, Prithvi Narayan Shah, Kantipur (Malla forces)
1744	Conquest of Belkot, a strategic fort north of Nuwakot, by Gorkha forces. The commander, Jayant Rana (a former Gorkhali), was executed as a warning.	Belkot, Jayant Rana, Prithvi Narayan Shah
1757	First failed attempt by Prithvi Narayan Shah to capture Kirtipur, a heavily fortified city in the Kathmandu Valley. General Kalu Pande was killed, and Prithvi Narayan Shah narrowly escaped.	Kirtipur, Prithvi Narayan Shah, Kalu Pande
1762–1763	Conquest of Makwanpur by Gorkha forces, gaining control of important southern trade routes and direct access to the Terai region.	Makwanpur, Sen Dynasty, Prithvi Narayan Shah
1764	Second failed attempt by Prithvi Narayan Shah to capture Kirtipur, despite a larger and better-equipped army. The city's strong defenses and motivated defenders repelled the Gorkhalis.	Kirtipur, Prithvi Narayan Shah
1760s	Conquest of Dolakha by the Gorkhali army through a series of raids and expeditions. This secured the northeastern trade route to Tibet.	Dolakha
1767, March 17	Successful capture of Kirtipur by Prithvi Narayan Shah using a siege and blockade strategy, cutting off supplies. The victory was followed by brutal mutilation of citizens as a warning.	Kirtipur, Prithvi Narayan Shah
1767–1768	Enforcement of an economic blockade of the Kathmandu Valley by Prithvi Narayan Shah, cutting off major trade routes. The Malla kings appealed to the British East India Company.	Kathmandu Valley, Malla kingdoms, British East India Company
1767, November	Battle of Sindhuli Gadhi: Gorkhali forces under local commanders decisively defeated the British expeditionary force led by Captain George Kinloch, who attempted to break the blockade of the Kathmandu Valley. This victory discouraged further British interference.	Sindhuli Gadhi, Captain George Kinloch, Prithvi Narayan Shah (Gorkhali troops)
1768, Sept 26	Conquest of Kathmandu (Kantipur) by Prithvi Narayan Shah during the Indra Jatra festival. Internal betrayal by nobles like Danuvanta led to the swift fall of the city, and King Jaya Prakash Malla fled to Patan.	Kathmandu (Kantipur), Prithvi Narayan Shah, Indra Jatra festival, Danuvanta, King Jaya Prakash Malla
1768, Oct 6	Conquest of Patan (Lalitpur) by Gorkha forces, just days after Kathmandu's fall. King Tej Narasimha Malla of Patan surrendered with minimal resistance.	Patan (Lalitpur), Prithvi Narayan Shah, King Tej Narasimha Malla
1769–1773	Conquest of Chaudandi and Bijayapur (eastern Nepal) by Gorkhali forces under commanders like Ram Krishna Kunwar, expanding Shah rule to the eastern frontiers.	Chaudandi, Bijayapur, Ram Krishna Kunwar
1769, Nov 12	Conquest of Bhaktapur (Bhadgaon), the final Malla kingdom in the Kathmandu Valley, completing the unification of the entire valley under Shah's rule.	Bhaktapur (Bhadgaon), Prithvi Narayan Shah
1771–1774	Conquest of Tanahun and Lamjung, part of the Chaubise Rajya, by Gorkhali forces. This expanded Prithvi Narayan Shah's western influence.	Tanahun, Lamjung (Chaubise Rajya)
1775, January 11	Death of Prithvi Narayan Shah at the age of 52 in Nuwakot, after completing the most significant phase of his unification mission. His successors, especially Regent Bahadur Shah, continued the expansion.	Prithvi Narayan Shah, Nuwakot, King Bahadur Shah (Regent)